Table 4 Summary of how the pedagogical performance of 3D models was evaluated

Ben Awadh et al. (2022) [23]

Y

Pre and posttest (cross-section images labelling questionnaire and mental rotation test)

319 / 2

N

1st year medical students

Y

Likert

Cercenelli et al. (2022) [84]

Y

MCQ and practical task

62/2

Y

second-year medical students

Y

Likert

Chandrasekaran et al. (2022) [24]

N

NS

96/2

Y

1st year medical students

Y

Likert

Hammerton et al. (2022) [25]

N

NS

84 / x

N

1st year medical students

Y

Likert (semi-structured interview)

Harmon D.J. et al. (2022) [26]

N

NS

80 / x

N

2^nd year doctors, 1st year medical and dental students

Y

Qualitative

Mogali et al. (2022) [27]

Y

Qualtrics software pre-test (MCQ)

63 / 2

Y

1st year medical students

N

Mahrous et al. (2021) [31]

N

NS

70 / x

N

Dental students

Y

Survey

O’Brien et al. (2021) [32]

Y

MCQ (structure identification on cross-sectional images) immediate and delayed test

31 / 2

Y

1st year medical students

N

Vatankhah et al. (2021) [35]

Y

Pre and post-test MCQ

13 / 2

Y

1^st and 2^nd year residents

N

Chedid et al. (2020) [39]

Y

Test questions

116 / 2

Y

Gastro-enterology, radiology and general surgery departments

N

Chen et al. (2020) [40]

Y

Pre and post-test

47 / 2

Y

Residents

Y

Questionnaire

Radzi et al. (2020) [45]

N

NS

58 / x

N

1st year medical students

Y

Likert

Tanner et al. (2020) [46]

Y

Quiz with pre and post test

123 / 2

Y

Junior and sophomores in medical education, premedecine undergraduate, graduate students of Master of Biomedical Science and 1st year medical students, dental and physicians’ students

Y

NS

Tripodi et al. (2020) [47]

N

NS

111 / x

N

1st year osteopathy students

Y

Likert and long answer survey

Backhouse et al. (2019) [49]

N

NS

81 / x

N

1st year students in ocular anatomy unit bachelor or vision sciences and master of optometry

Y

Likert

Cai et al. (2019) [51]

Y

MCQ

35 / 2

Y

1st year medical students

N

Hojo et al. (2019) [52]

Y

Short and long tests

102 / 2

Y

Medical students, residents and one colorectal surgeon

Y

Likert

Low et al. (2019)

Y

Pre and post-tests

41 / 2

Y

Residents (radiology and ENT)

N

Ugidos Lozano et al. (2019) [56]

N

NS

280 / x

N

Physiotherapy, medicine, nursing, occupational therapy and dentistry students of Health Sciences

Y

Likert

Yi et al. (2019) [57]

Y

Pre and post-tests (theorical and practical questions)

60 / 3

Y

2nd year medical students

Y

Likert

Zhang et al. (2019) [58]

Y

Reports

30 / 10

Y

5 year medical students

Y

Likert

Garas et al. (2018) [61]

Y

9 questions test (identify pinned structures)

23 / 2

N

1st year health sciences and 3rd year Human Biology Preclinical students

Y

Likert

Mogali Et al. (2018)

N

NS

15 / x

N

2nd year medical students

Y

Likert

Smith et al. (2018) [63]

Y

Test questions

127 / 2

Y

1st year medical students

Y

Key themes from focus group

Wu et al. (2018) [66]

Y

Questions

90 / 2

Y

Medical students completed anatomy courses

Y

Likert

Chen et al. (2017) [69]

Y

MCQ and labelled structures to be recognized

79 / 3

Y

3^rd year medical students

Y

Likert

Fasel et al. (2016) [74]

N

NS

12 / x

N

Undergraduate medical students

Y

Scale 1 to 6

Kong et al. (2016) [77]

Y

Quiz

92 / 4

Y

1st year medical students

N

Kong et al. (2016) [77]

Y

Quiz

61 / 3

Y

1st year medical students

N

Lim et al. (2016) [16]

Y

MCQ and labelled structures to be recognized pre and post-tests

53 / 3

Y

1st year medical students

N

O’Reilly et al. (2016) [78]

Y

Quizdom System pre and post-test

22 / 2

Y

Graduate entry medicine year 1 class

Y

Likert

Shah et al. (2016) [79]

Y

Labelled structures to be recognized

8 / 2

N

Neurosurgery residents (junior and senior)

N

Hochman et al. (2015) [82]

N

NS

10 / 10

Y

Residents

Y

Likert