Table 3 Summary of how the morphology of the 3D models was evaluated

Ben Awadh et al. (2022) [23]

2D images

NS

NS

Cercenelli et al. (2022) [84]

3DPAM and VR versus 2D images

NS

NS

Chandrasekaran et al. (2022) [24]

Plastinated

NS

NS

Hammerton et al. (2022) [25]

NS

Anatomy senior (2) and educators (11)

Qualitative

Mogali et al. (2022) [27]

Plastinated

NS

NS

Saleh et al. (2022)

NS

Authors (5)

Qualitative

Tan et al. (2022) [28]

Cadaver and digital

Anatomist (5) and surgeons (3)

Qualitative and quantitative

Bertolini et al. (2021) [29]

CT images

Authors (3)

Qualitative and quantitative

Krishnasamy et al. (2021) [30]

NS

Surgeons, cardiologists, radiologists, surgical registrars (30)

Survey

Mahrous et al. (2021) [31]

Natural tooth, 3D AR and VR

NS

NS

O’Brien et al. (2021) [32]

2D images

NS

NS

Ruiz et al. (2021) [33]

NS

Authors (2)

Quantitative

Weatherall et al. (2021) [36]

NS

Authors (6)

Qualitative

Abducaldir et al. (2020)

2D diagrams

Expert researchers (30)

Semi-structure interview

Chae et al. (2020) [38]

Cadaver (temporal bone), optic scanner and micro-CT images

Authors (8)

Quantitative

Chedid et al. (2020) [39]

2D images

NS

NS

Chen et al. (2020) [40]

2D images

NS

NS

Damon et al. (2020) [41]

Same model with and without initial rotation

NS

NS

Hojo et al. (2020) [6]

3D VR and CT images

Surgeons (30)

Likert and Adachi classification

Javan et al. (2020) [43]

Serious gaming and VR

NS

NS

Low et al. (2020) [44]

NS

Authors (4)

Qualitative

Radzi et al. (2020) [45]

Plastinated

NS

NS

Tanner et al. (2020) [46]

Cadaver (half-skull)

NS

NS

Bartikian et al. (2019) [50]

Same model with different printer

Authors (4)

Qualitative

Cai et al. (2019) [51]

Cadaver (knee skeleton)

Experts in human anatomy (2)

Qualitative

Low et al. (2019)

2D images

NS

NS

Shen et al. (2019) [54]

Cadaver (skull) (other study)

NS

NS

Skrzat et al. (2019) [55]

Cadaver

Authors (4)

Qualitative

Ugidos Lozano et al. (2019) [56]

2D images and cadaver (bones)

NS

NS

Yi et al. (2019) [57]

NS

Professor of anatomy (2) and professor of surgery (2)

Likert

Zhang et al. (2019) [58]

NS

Experienced teachers (5)

Scores

Casciato et al. (2018) [60]

NS

Authors (3)

Quantitative

Garas et al. (2018) [61]

Cadaver and plastinated

NS

NS

Mogali et al. (2018) [62]

Plastinated

Students (15)

Qualitative

Smith et al. (2018) [64]

Cadaver (teacher) and 2D images (students)

Teachers (6)

Survey

Smith et al. (2018) [64]

NS

Authors (2)

Qualitative

Suzuki et al. (2018) [65]

NS

Authors (9)

Qualitative

Ugidos Lozano et al. (2018)

NS

Authors (6)

Qualitative

Wu et al. (2018) [66]

Radiographics

NS

NS

Zhang et al. (2018) [67]

CT images

Senior doctors (9)

Survey and Likert

Chen et al. (2017) [69]

2D images and cadaver

Students (26)

Likert

Favier et al. (2017) [70]

Cadaver

Authors (9)

Quantitative

Javan et al. (2017) [71]

NS

Authors (3)

Qualitative and descriptive

Kavanagh et al. (2017)

NS

Authors (6)

Quantitative and Likert

Legocki et al. (2017) [72]

Commercial model

Authors (3)

Quantitative and qualitative

Fasel et al. (2016) [74]

CT images and cadaver (dissection)

Students (12)

Quantitative

Khong et al. (2016)

3 different 3DPAM and 2D images

Anatomy teachers (4) and consultants of surgery (2)

Likert

Khong et al. (2016)

3D VR and 2D images

Anatomy teachers (4) and consultants of surgery (2)

Likert

O’Reilly et al. (2016) [78]

Cadaver

NS

NS

Shah et al. (2016) [79]

2D images

NS

NS

Adams et al. (2015) [80]

NS

Authors (6)

Satisfaction

Cohen et al. (2015) [81]

NS

Authors (2)

Qualitative

Hochman et al. (2015) [82]

3D VR

NS

NS

McMenamin et al. (2014) [83]

Plastinated

Authors (4)

Descriptive