Table 2 Summary of model design data

Ben Awadh et al. (2022) [23]

Thorax

Heart

Patient and database

CT

3D Slicer, Blender, ideaMaker

FDM

NS

NS

N

NS

Cercenelli et al. (2022) [84]

Head

Dry skull, orbit

Cadaver

CT

D2P, Meshmixer

SLA

NS

NS

NS

NS

Chandrasekaran et al. (2022) [24]

Neck and thorax

Heart and neck

NS

NS

NS

NS

NS

N

NS

Hammerton et al. (2022) [25]

Thorax

Heart

Public database

NS

NS

NS

NS

NS

N

NS

Harmon et al. (2022) [26]

Upper and lower-limbs, pelvis, thorax

Bones

Public database

CT

In Vesalius, Meshmixer, Blender, Cura, 3D Slicer

FDM

NS

NS

NS

1.88 USD per model

Mogali et al. (2022) [27]

Thorax and neck

Full hearts, cross-section of the heart, coronary trees

Cadaver (plastinated human prosections)

CT

3D slicer, Materialise Magics

MJ

Photopolymers and translucent elastomers resins (Vero Yellow), Tango Plus and VeroMagenta

1 and 0.95

Y

6, 310, 319, 715 and 1,960 USD per model

Saleh et al. (2022)

Head

Temporal bone

Anonymized DICOM data

CT

Blender, MeshMixer, GrabCAD

MJ

Vero and Tango rigid and elastic polymers

1.4

Y

1300 GBP

Tan et al. (2022) [28]

Head, upper-limb

Skull, brain, face, hand muscles, blood vessels, nerves and deep structures

Database from frozen cadaver

optical

Maya

MJ

Hard and flexible

1

Y

NS

Bertolini et al. (2021) [29]

Thorax

Heart

Patient

CT

Mimics, 3-Matic (Materialise), Preform 3.3 (Formlabs), ScanStudio 2.0, CloudCompare (GPL)

SLA

Rigid and elastic resin

NS

N

NS

Krishnasamy et al. (2021) [30]

Thorax

Heart

Patient

CT

BioModroid

MJ and BJ

Rigid polymer, plastic and wax

1

N

NS

Mahrous et al. (2021) [31]

Head

Teeth

NS

NS

SLA

NS

1

N

NS

O’Brien et al. (2021) [32]

Thorax

Tracheobronchial tree

Patient

CT

3-Matic Medical

MJ

Vero clear

NS

N

NS

Ruiz and Dhaher (2021) [33]

Lower-limb

Knee joint

Previous study.stl file

NS

GrabCAD Print, Materialise 3-Matic (Materialise), SolidWorks, (Dassault), Rhinoceros 3D (Robert McNeel & Associates)

MJ

Agilus30, Tango and Digital ABS

NS

Y

NS

Smillie et al. (2021) [34]

Abdomen

Hepatobiliary system with stomach and duodenum

Database

Contrast enhanced CT

Simpleware ScanIP, Meshmixer, Blender, GrabCAD

MJ

VeroMagenta, VeroYellow, VeroCyan

NS

Y

1.343 GBP for raw plastic

Vatankhah et al. (2021) [35]

Head

Orbit

Patient

CT

NS

NS

NS

N

NS

Weatherall et al. (2021) [36]

Thorax

Airway with bone pieces

21-month-old patient and adult woman archived

CT

Avizo Lite, Geomagic studio 2014, Rhinoceros

BJ, MJ and SLA

White Version 3 resin, Flexible version 2 resin, VeroPure White, Tango Plus, Tango Black Polymers photopolymers, silicone elements

NS

Y

NS

Abdulcadir et al. (2020) [37]

Pelvis

Female pelvis with bone pieces

Patient

CT and MRI

Vitrea Vital Version 6.7.6 Canon, Kerne b40d, 3D Organ Segmentation (Vitrea), PrusaSlicer Version 2.0 (Slic3r), Blender

FDM

PLA

1 and 0.5

Y

NS

Chae et al. (2020) [38]

Head

Temporal bone

Cadaver

3D scan and micro-CT

Meshlab, iNtellect Cranial Navigation system, blender, 3D printer

SLA

resin

1

N

25 000 USD (optic scan), 200 USD (micro-CT), 3350 USD (SLA printer), 7 USD per model (resin)

Chedid et al. (2020) [39]

Abdomen

Liver segments

NS

CT

NS

NS

NS

Y

NS

Chen et al. (2020) [40]

Abdomen

Gastro-colic trunk

Patients

CT angiography

Advantage Workstation GE Medical System, Geomagic studio 2014 modelling software

NS

Thermoplastic urethane and resin

1

Y

NS

Damon et al. (2020) [41]

Vertebral column

Lumbosacral vertebrae

Database

NS

3D Slicer

FDM

ABS

NS

N

NS

Hojo et al. (2020) [42]

Pelvis

Pelvic lymph nodes with bone pieces

Patient

CT

Meshmixer version 3.5

FDM

PLA

NS

Y

15 USD

Javan et al. (2020) [43]

Head

Pterygopalatine fossa

Database

CT

Materialize InPrint, Autodesk 3D Studio Max 2018, Adobe Flash, iMaterialise.com

NS

PA and disk magnet

NS

AP

200 USD

Low et al. (2020) [44]

Head

Frontal sinus

Database

CT

Mimics, 3-matic (Materialise)

BJ

Gypsum powder

NS

Y

75.75 USD

Radzi et al. (2020) [45]

Thorax

Heart

Plastinated heart

CT

3D slicer, Materialise magics', Objet studio'

MJ

NS

1

Y

411 and 1639.7 Singapour dollar

Tanner et al. (2020) [46]

Head

Pterygopalatine fossa

Database

NS

FDM

PLA

NS

AP

NS

Tripodi et al. (2020) [47]

Upper-limb

Bones pieces

NS

NS

FlashPrint MeshMixer

FDM

PLA

0.25

N

635 USD (printer), 1.25 USD per model (filament)

Williams et al. (2020) [48]

Abdomen

Retroperitoneum with bone pieces

Patient

CT and MRI

Simpleware ScanIP, Meshmixer, Blender, GrabCAD

MJ

VeroMagenta, VeroYellow, VeroWhite

1

Y

2223.02£

Backhouse et al. (2019) [49]

Head

Orbit with bone pieces

Cadaver bone piece

3D scan

DAVID Laserscanner Pro Edition v4

NS

ABS

0.85

AP

2 USD per model, 5000 to 8000 USD (printer)

Bartikian et al. (2019) [50]

Head

Bone pieces

Cadaver bone piece

CT

3D Slicer, Craft-ware, Z-suite

FDM

PLA and ABS

NS

N

NS

Cai et al. (2019) [51]

Lower-limb

Knee joint

Patient

CT

InVesalius, Artec Studio, Rhino

SLS

PA EOS

1

N

90 USD per set

Hojo et al. (2019) [52]

Pelvis

Lateral pelvic lymph nodes with bone pieces

Patient

CT

Osirix MD Viewer, MeshMixer

FDM

NS

1

Y

NS

Kanagasuntheram et al. (2019) [53]

Upper-limb

Midcarpal joint

Patient

CT

Leios2 (Evatronix SA), Rhinoceros version 5

SLS

PA EOS and stainless steel with bronze

1

Y

150 USD per model (material)

Low et al. (2019)

Head

Frontal sinus

Patient

CT

Mimics (Materialise)

BJ

NS

NS

Y

NS

Shen et al. (2019) [54]

Head

Skull

Patient

CT

Mimics 17.0, Geomagic Studio (13.0), Autodesk Mudbox, MeshMixer

FDM

PLA

NS

AP

14 USD per model (material) and 500 USD (printer)

Skrzat et al. (2019) [55]

Head

Temporal bone

Cadaver bone piece

CT

In Vesalius, MeshLab

FDM

PLA and polyvinyl alcohol filament

1

N

NS

NSgidos Lozano et al (2019)

Head, thorax, small bones

Skull, small bones, vertebrae, thorax

NS

Laser scan

Geomagic

FDM

PLA

NS

N

NS

Yi et al. (2019) [57]

Head

Ventricular system with bone pieces

Patient

CT

PolyJet Studio 3DP

MJ

PLA and photocurable resin

NS

N

30 USD (material), “very expensive” printer

Young et al. (2019) [85]

Human gestational specimens

Week 4 to week 21

Fixed human embryonic and fetal specimens

CT

Mimics, version 17 (Materialise, Leuven, Belgium) 3D Coat, version 4.7.06 (Pilgway, Kiev, Ukraine), Stratasys 3D printing software PolyJet Studio,

BJ

gypsum-like plaster and binders, TangoPlus, VeroMagenta, yellow and cyan

1

Y

30 AUD USD (week 9 print) to 215 AUD USD (week 21 print)

Zhang et al. (2019) [58]

Head, neck, thorax, abdomen, pelvis, reproductive organ, lower-limb

Uterus, vagina, bladder, urethra, skin, cerebellum, brain stem, bone pieces, eyeball, optic nerve, liver, kidney, lung, penis

Database

Camera and microscope

Amira

FDM and SLA

PLA and photosensitive resin

NS

AP

NS

Bannon et al. (2018) [59]

Head

Pterygopalatine fossa

Database

NS

3D slicer, Meshmixer, Blender (open source), Slic3r Prusa Edition (G-code conversion)

FDM

PLA

1 and 2

AP

0.13£ (Scotland)

Casciato et al. (2018) [60]

Lower-limb

Right leg

Cadaver

NS

Microsoft PowerPoint, Selva3D, CURA

FDM

PLA

NS

N

304 USD (full cost) including 2.13 USD (filament) and printer

Garas et al. (2018) [61]

Trunk

Heart, shoulder, tight

NS

NS

NS

NS

NS

NS

Y

NS

Mogali et al. (2018) [62]

Upper-limb

Left upper-limb

Cadaver (plastinated)

CT

3D Doctor (Able Software)

MJ

soft elastomers and rigid plastic

NS

Y

390 USD

Smith et al. (2018) [64]

Thorax, musculo-skeletal

Respiratory system, musculo-skeletal system

Cadaver

CT

Materialize Mimics v15.0, MakerWare

FDM

ABS

From 0.4 to 1

N

NS

Smith et al. (2018) [63]

Head and neck

Posterior triangle of the neck, laryngeal model, intrinsic muscles of the larynx and vocal folds, bone pieces

Database

NS

MeshMixer, CURA LulzBot

FDM

PLA and FilaFlex

NS

Y

4077 USD (printer); 26 USD (FilaFlex), 40 USD (PLA). 144 to 387 USD per model

Suzuki et al. (2018) [65]

Head

Temporal bone, vestibulocochlear organ

Cadaver

CT

Synapse Vincent (Fujifilm)

MJ

Ultraviolet transparent curing resin

0.66

AP

NS

Ugidos Lozano et al. (2018)

Head and arm

Bone pieces

Cadaveric bone

CT and laser scan

3D slicer, Artec studio 3D, Geomagic Design X 3D, CURA

FDM

PLA

1

N

NS

Wu et al. (2018) [66]

Spine, pelvis, upper and lower-limbs

Bone pieces

Patient

CT

Mimics 16.0

NS

NS

NS

NS

6 to 10.50 USD (spine and limbs) to 90 USD (pelvis)

Zhang et al. (2018) [67]

Head

Sinus-skull base

Patient

CT

Mimics, Cura version 15.02

FDM

PLA

1

N

3 USD

Bücking et al. (2017) [68]

Thorax and abdomen

Ribs, lung, liver

Database

NS

Mimics, Simpleware, Freesurfer, Seg3D, 3D Slicer, MeshMixer, Cura, InVesalius, ITK Snap, Osirix Lite, Horos, ImageJ

FDM

PLA

NS

N

16£ (lung), 25£ (ribs), 10£ (liver)

Chen S. et al. (2017) [69]

Head

Skull

Cadaveric bone

CT

Mimics, Geomagic, 3ds Max, MeshMixer

FDM

PLA

NS

AP

500 USD (printer) and 14 USD (material)

Favier et al. (2017) [70]

Head

Bone pieces

Cadavers

CT and micro-CT

Medical Image Segmentation Tool, Meshlab

MJ and BJ and SLS and FDM

Multicolor plaster, resin, PA, polycarbonate, composite powder

1

N

155 USD (computer), 275 USD (Multicolor), 880 USD (resin), 298 USD (PA)

Javan et al. (2017) [71]

Head

Cranial nerve, brainstem, skull

Patient

NS

Materialise Mimics, Adobe Photoshop, Osirix Lite, Autodesk 3D Studio Max

NS

PA

1.2

N

120 USD

Kavanagh et al. (2017)

Neck and thorax

Larynx and trachea

NS

CT

SolidWorks (Dassault Systèmes)

FDM

PLA, ABS, HIPS

NS

N

1.75 USD to 4.66 USD per model

Legocki et al. (2017) [72]

Head

Skull, mandible and maxilla

Patient

CT

Osirix, MeshLab

FDM

PLA and thermoplastic

1

N

1000 USD including 90.85 to 91.65 USD per model and 2 × 22.5 USD per hour and excluding 3598 USD for printer and software

Lozano et al. (2017) [73]

Head

Skull

Cadaver

3D scan

Geomagic design 3D, Repetier-Host, CURA (Ultimaker trading house)

FDM

PLA

1

N

“Low cost”

Fasel et al. (2016) [74]

Head, neck, thorax, abdomen and pelvis

Isthmus of the thyroid, diaphragm and aorta

Cadaver

CT

Osirix, Mimics 14.12

BJ

NS

1

N

NS

Javan et al. (2016) [75]

Head, thorax, abdomen and pelvis

Liver, lung, prostate, coronary arteries, circle of Willis

Database

MRI

Autodesk 3D Studio Max, Osirix lite, Slicer

NS

PA

NS

AP

40 to 100 USD per model

Kong et al. (2016) [76]

Abdomen

Liver

Cadaver

CT

Mimics, Geomagic, Zedit 3.21 (3D system)

Ink-jet 3DP

composite powder, curing agent, transparent jelly wax

NS

Y

600 USD per model

Kong et al. (2016) [77]

Abdomen

Liver

Patient

CT

3DV system, Zedit 3.21

Ink-jet 3DP

composite powder, curing agent

NS

Y

NS

Lim et al. (2016) [16]

Thorax

Heart

Cadaver (prosection)

CT

Avizo Lite, 3D coat version

BJ

NS

1

Y

NS

O’Reilly et al. (2016) [78]

Lower-limb

Bone, tendon, muscles

Database

NS

MeshLab, version 1.3.3, Tinkercad (Autodesk Inc., San Francisco, CA), Z EditTM Pro, (3D Systems Corp., Rock Hill, SC)

BJ

Composite powder and silicone

0.5 and 0.33

Y

NS

Shah et al. (2016) [79]

Head

Sphenoid sinus

Patient

MRI and CT

NC (3-D printing system)

NS

Thermoplastic

NS

N

NS

Adams et al. (2015)

Head

Orbit with bone pieces

Cadaver

Laser scan

Artec studio Version9.0, 3D Coat (PILGWAY, Ukraine), Geomagic (3D systems, USA)

BJ

Composite powder and powdered plastic

1

Y

NS

Cohen et al. (2015) [81]

Head

Temporal bone

Patient

CT

ITK-SNAP

FDM

ABS

NS

Y

27.61 to 42.02 USD

Hochman et al. (2015) [82]

Head

Temporal bone

Cadaver

Micro-CT

Mimics 14.0, Geomagic

NS

remnant material, binding agent

NS

Y

NS

McMenamin et al. (2014) [83]

Upper-limb

Wrist and hand

Cadaver (prosection)

CT

Avizo Lite, 3D coat version

BJ

NS

1

Y

65 000 USD (printer), 8000 USD (software), 400 USD per hour (CT), 5000 USD (computer), 0.55 USD per cc (consumables) and 40,000 USD (technical staff)