Table 1 Rotated factor loading matrix of all items

Factor 1: Ability to set studying objectives

A1. I can determine my learning objectives by myself.

0.745

A2. I have short-term learning objectives (daily or weekly).

0.738

A3. I have long-term learning goals (semester or academic year).

0.729

A4. After completing a learning objective, I will determine the next learning objective as soon as possible.

0.733

Factor 2: Willpower in studying

B1. Even if the content of the final exam is a lot, I can stay up late and finish the review.

0.723

B2. When there is a conflict between learning and entertainment, I will not affect learning due to entertainment.

0.587

B3. In learning, I can do an important but boring thing for a long time.

0.623

B4. No matter what difficulties I encounter, I will stick to my learning goal.

0.552

B5. I think I have strong self-discipline in the process of learning.

0.552

Factor 3: Ability to set studying plans

C1. I can arrange my study time reasonably.

0.613

C2. I can break down a rough learning goal into multi-stage learning steps.

0.604

C3. I know exactly what I should learn every day.

0.623

C4. I can make plans in my heart on how to complete the learning tasks of each week.

0.612

C5. Before I start learning, I ask myself, “what should I learn next?” And other related issues.

0.543

Factor 4: Ability to use learning methods

D1. I take the initiative to learn some efficient learning methods.

0.681

D2. I can use appropriate learning methods according to different learning contents.

0.644

D3. I keep improving my learning methods.

0.683

D4. I can use many ways to solve the problems encountered in learning (such as asking teachers, searching on the Internet, etc.).

0.673

D5. I pay great attention to observing and learning from other people’s learning methods and experiences.

0.659

Factor 5: Ability to adjust psychological state

E1. I am always full of energy to learn.

0.487

E2. I have ways to prevent the bad emotions that arise during study.

0.794

E3. I have ways to ease the bad emotions that arise during study.

0.838

E4. When anxiety occurs in my learning process, I will think of some relaxed and happy things to get rid of anxiety.

0.806

Factor 6: Ability to Self-reflect

F1. I can summarize a stage of learning.

0.632

F2. Before I go to bed, I often think about what I learned today and how well did I learn.

0.732

F3. After each stage of study, I would think about whether I had completed the study plan.

0.683

F4. I evaluate my learning effect regularly.

0.722

F5. I regularly reflect on how to improve my learning.

0.671