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Table 2 TSSI category and item mean comparison between Einstein and Pacific College students

From: Comparing scientific worldviews between allopathic medical degree and East Asian medicine degree students utilizing the thinking about science survey instrument (TSSI)

TSSI Category and Corresponding Items

Mean (SD)

P-value

 

Einstein students

(n = 122)

Pacific College students

(n = 48)

 

Epistemology: Science is a superior, exemplary form of knowledge that produces highly reliable and objective knowledge about the real world.

3.07b (0.64)

2.61b (0.71)

<.0001*

33. The methods of science are the most reliable source of true, factual knowledge.

3.66a (1.00)

2.81b (0.91)

<.0001*

34. Science is the best source of reliable knowledge.

3.75a (1.04)

2.90b (0.95)

<.0001*

17. Scientific knowledge is the most objective form of knowledge.

3.81a (1.00)

3.06b (1.14)

<.0001*

60. Scientific knowledge is the truest form of knowledge.

3.32b (1.10)

2.67b (1.23)

0.001*

46. The methods of science are objective.

3.48b (0.88)

3.13b (0.94)

0.02*

2. No source of knowledge provides absolute truth - not even science.R

3.50b (1.22)

3.83a (1.14)

0.1

29. We can be certain that scientific knowledge is reliable.

2.81b (1.05)

2.63b (1.16)

0.32

44. No form of knowledge - including science - can ever be completely objective.R

3.85a (0.97)

3.96a (0.92)

0.52

27. No form of knowledge can be completely certain - not even scientific knowledge.R

3.88a (1.09)

3.88a (1.12)

0.96

Public Health: The conquering of disease and physical affliction and the great advances in public health are made possible by science and will not continue without science.

3.93a (0.58)

3.49b (0.55)

<.0001*

8. Scientific knowledge is the single most important factor in the improvement of medicine and public health.

3.26b (1.26)

2.60b (1.20)

0.002*

9. Common sense contributes more to good health than does scientific knowledge.R

2.64b (1.00)

3.10b (0.93)

0.01*

58. Scientific knowledge contributes little to good health.R

1.52c (1.01)

1.92c (1.03)

0.02*

48. Scientific research makes important contributions to medicine and the improvement of public health.

4.62a (0.67)

4.38a (0.73)

0.04*

Emotion and Aesthetics: Scientists are often passionate about their work but the work of science best proceeds on the basis of objective reason and empiricism. There is a beauty to science. Indeed, “elegance” is often required of scientific ideas.

3.80a (0.50)

3.49b (0.49)

0.0004*

12. Scientific explanations tend to spoil the beauty of nature.R

1.50c (0.82)

2.13c (1.08)

0.001*

21. It is equally important for a person to have scientific knowledge and an appreciation for the arts.R

3.74a (1.10)

4.27a (0.94)

0.004*

36. Science can contribute to our appreciation and experience of beauty.

4.50a (0.76)

4.15a (0.62)

0.005*

1. Human emotion plays no part in the creation of scientific knowledge.R

2.07c (1.07)

1.77c (1.02)

0.1

Economy: Modern industrial, commercial, and information-based economies depend on the scientific developments for increasing production, wealth and general public welfare.

4.16a (0.42)

3.92a (0.41)

0.0008*

42. Science is our best source of useful knowledge.

3.69a (1.01)

2.79b (1.11)

<.0001*

22. The development of our natural resources, such as coal, gas, oil, solar energy, requires much more than scientific knowledge.R

3.62a (0.99)

3.96a (0.85)

0.04*

49. Developing new scientific knowledge is very important for keeping our country economically competitive in today’s world.

4.41a (0.66)

4.15a (0.87)

0.06

25. There are many good things we can do today because of scientific knowledge.

4.70a (0.62)

4.50a (0.74)

0.08

51. Scientific knowledge is useful.

4.71a (0.60)

4.56a (0.62)

0.14

14. The strength of our national economy does not depend on scientific knowledge.R

1.83c (0.92)

2.04c (0.85)

0.17

31. The development of our natural resources, such as coal, gas, oil, solar energy, is dependent upon having adequate scientific knowledge.

4.33a (0.62)

4.15a (0.82)

0.17

20. Scientific knowledge is useful in keeping our national economy competitive in today’s world.

4.17a (0.75)

4.06a (0.86)

0.41

41. Scientific knowledge is useful for only a few people.R

1.47c (0.63)

1.54c (0.80)

0.56

16. Science helps develop our natural resources such as coal, gas, oil, and solar energy.

4.49a (0.71)

4.50a (0.77)

0.95

Public Policy: Science acts in the public interest. Science should thus be supported by public funds, however, the science community is more than capable of policing scientific activity.

3.29b (0.36)

3.10b (0.38)

0.0027*

50. Scientific knowledge influences government decision making too much.R

2.06c (0.82)

2.83b (0.97)

<.0001*

6. Scientific research is generally very important.

4.61a (0.64)

4.25a (0.84)

0.01*

57. The government should not be in the business of using tax dollars to fund scientific research.R

1.59c (0.86)

1.96c (1.05)

0.02*

5. Scientific research is rarely dangerous to the public.

2.72b (1.04)

2.33c (1.12)

0.04*

10. Scientific research should be adequately funded by government.

4.58a (0.68)

4.38a (0.67)

0.07

45. Scientific research is economically and politically determined.R

3.98a (0.74)

3.75a (0.89)

0.08

28. Scientific research should be carefully regulated by law.R

3.57a (1.06)

3.69a (1.06)

0.52

26. Scientists should not be allowed to research anything they wish.R

2.79b (1.13)

2.71b (0.92)

0.64

18. Scientific research is often potentially dangerous to the public.R

2.75b (1.04)

2.75b (1.02)

0.98

19. There is little need for the legal regulation of scientific research.

1.71c (0.83)

1.71c (0.87)

0.99

Race and Gender: Science is an “equal opportunity employer.” Race, gender and other personal factors are irrelevant in science.

2.87b (0.95)

3.22b (1.09)

0.0395*

23. The scientific community is mostly dominated by men and is often unfriendly to women.R

3.35b (0.98)

2.92b (1.13)

0.01*

53. The scientific community is mostly dominated by white men and is often unfriendly to minority people.R

3.31b (1.07)

2.88b (1.21)

0.02*

30. African Americans and other minority people are just as welcome in the scientific community as are white people.

2.92b (1.31)

3.23b (1.49)

0.18

4. Women are welcome in science just as much as men are.

3.22b (1.38)

3.44b (1.43)

0.36

Environment and Resource: Science is necessary for the discovery, development, and conservation and protection of natural resources and the environment in general.

3.84a (0.58)

3.66a (0.70)

0.0981

43. Science can help us preserve our natural environment and natural resources.

4.40a (0.65)

4.10a (0.99)

0.06

59. Without science we will not be able to preserve our natural environment and natural resources.

4.02a (0.91)

3.65a (1.26)

0.07

38. Our natural environment would actually be helped by the absence of scientific knowledge.R

1.78c (0.96)

1.94c (0.91)

0.33

3. Scientific knowledge has often contributed to the destruction of our environment and natural resources.R

3.30b (1.20)

3.17b (1.39)

0.55

Science for All: The importance of science is such that it should be taught at all levels of schooling. Every citizen should have attained at least a minimal level of science literacy.

4.07a (0.56)

4.17a (0.52)

0.2918

13. Students should not be forced to take science courses at the university.R

2.20c (1.18)

1.65c (0.84)

0.001*

55. Even at the university level all students should study at least some science.

3.84a (1.02)

4.31a (0.85)

0.01*

54. Most people really do not need to know very much science.R

2.34c (1.04)

2.04c (0.92)

0.08

37. Only a very few people really understand science.R

2.43c (0.99)

2.73b (1.14)

0.1

15. Science should not be made an important subject for the elementary school grades.R

1.40c (0.92)

1.56c (1.03)

0.32

52. All students should study science during the secondary school grade levels.

4.45a (0.74)

4.35a (0.84)

0.46

56. Science should be taught at all school grade levels.

4.22a (0.97)

4.33a (0.81)

0.49

24. Understanding science is a good thing for everyone.

4.42a (0.75)

4.33a (0.91)

0.52

Religion and Morality: People make moral choices about the use of scientific findings but science itself is morally neutral. Science is also neutral with regard to religion. The importance of science, however, is such that science must be protected from the intrusive activities of some religions.

2.68b (0.72)

2.60b (0.54)

0.5211

11. Science is a more important source of knowledge than religion.

3.61a (1.26)

3.19b (1.27)

0.053

32. Religious knowledge contributes more to the well being of a person’s life than does science.R

2.43c (0.98)

2.67b (0.95)

0.15

47. Scientific knowledge tends to erode spiritual values.

2.33c (0.93)

2.50c (1.07)

0.3

7. A person can be both religious and scientific.R

4.34a (0.87)

4.48a (0.74)

0.33

39. Religion and science are almost always at odds with each other.

2.25c (1.10)

2.35c (1.04)

0.59

35. Scientific research is morally neutral.

2.56b (1.08)

2.58b (1.11)

0.91

40. Religion tends to impede scientific progress.

2.77b (1.25)

2.75b (1.08)

0.92

  1. R Negatively worded statement—means were not reversed
  2. a Align with the model
  3. b Neutral to the model
  4. c Reject the model
  5. * p < 0.05