Table 1 Six cultural dimensions as suggested by Hofstede with a few modifications [23, 36]
Dimensions (scores) | Definitions | Countries’ scores (0–100) | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Japan | China | South Korea | UK | USA | ||
Power distance, large vs small | The degree to which the less powerful members of a society accept and expect that power is distributed unequivocally. In cultures with large power distance, junior members are expected to wait for instructions from their supervisors, whereas in a society with small power distance, supervisors expect their juniors to take the initiative themselves. | 54 | 80 | 60 | 35 | 40 |
Individualism (high) vs Collectivism (low) | The degree to which people in society are integrated into groups. Individualism is defined as a preference for a loosely-knit social framework in which individuals are expected to take care of themselves and their immediate families, whereas collectivism represents a preference for a tightly-knit social framework in which individuals expect their relatives or members of a particular in-group to look after them in exchange of unquestioning loyalty. | 46 | 20 | 18 | 89 | 91 |
Uncertainty avoidance, high vs low | The degree to which the members of a society feel uncomfortable with uncertainty and ambiguity. | 92 | 30 | 85 | 35 | 46 |
Masculinity (high) vs femininity (low) | Masculinity stands for a preference in society for achievement, heroism, assertiveness, and material rewards for success. Femininity stands for a preference for cooperation, modesty, caring for the weak, and quality of life. | 95 | 66 | 39 | 66 | 62 |
Long term orientation (high) vs short term orientation (low) | The extent to which the fostering of virtues is oriented toward future rewards, in particular, perseverance and thrift. Long term orientation is a tendency to look to the future and make decisions about what to do now. Short-term orientation is to focus on the present because the future is unpredictable. | 88 | 87 | 100 | 51 | 26 |
Indulgence (high) vs restraint (low) | Indulgence implies a society that allows relatively free gratification of basic and natural human initiatives related to enjoying life and having fun. Restraint implies a society that suppresses gratification of needs and regulates it by means of strict social norms. | 42 | 24 | 29 | 69 | 68 |