Table 1 Challenges with Lecture- and PBL-based approaches

• Substantial volume of material

• Information transmission-oriented

• Synchronous in-person or recorded

• Faculty-centric

• Passive

• Memorization heavy

• Limited peer teaching, peer interactions, peer co-creation of knowledge

• Self-directed learning permits students to gloss over difficulty topics

• Limited feedback from faculty facilitators

• Insufficient familiarity with subject matter to self-identify knowledge gaps

• Limited faculty guidance to foster cognitive bootstrapping, scaffolding, and flexibility

• Absence of a conceptual framework for approaching the discipline