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Table 1 Characteristics of Included Studies

From: Leadership training programs in graduate medical education: a systematic review

Study

Study Design

Setting

Sample Size

Age

Sex

Specialty

Level of Training

Description of Program

Topics Covered

Follow-up Period

Outcome Metrics

Whitman, 1988 [13]

Prospective case series

United States (participants from 138 residency programs)

180

Not reported

Not reported

21 specialties, including Internal Medicine, Surgery, and Family Medicine

Chief Resident

Two-day workshop presenting information on a management skill in 45 min followed by

60-min small group exercise on applying the skills

Time management

Delegation of work

Feedback

Motivation

Stress management

Conflict resolution

Clinical teaching

Team building

None

Survey of each lecture and small-group exercise (5-point scale)

Doughty et al., 1991 [14]

Retrospective case series

United States (participants from 50 institutions)

117

Not reported

Not reported

Pediatrics

Chief Resident

3-day experiential workshop

Leadership roles

Group functioning

Personal leadership skills and styles

Dealing with conflict

Effective feedback

Stress management

Working with hospital administration

6 months

Evaluation of activities (10-point Likert Scale)

Mygdal et al., 1991 [15]

Prospective case series

Texas Family Practice Chief Resident Leadership Conference

27

Not reported

Not reported

Family Medicine

Chief Resident

Workshops (stress coping skills, leadership skills),

Small group discussions (supplementing the workshops),

Plenary speeches (three talks by leaders in Texas Family Medicine),

Concluding planning session

Leadership skills

Stress management

1 year

Self-rating scale, subdivided into two subscales: Stress Management and Leadership Skills; Reactions to conference scale, Conference Evaluation Scale

Evans et al., 1997 [16]

Prospective case control

University of Washington Family Practice Residency Network

78 (64 control, 14 study group)

28.7

42.3% Male

Family Medicine

PGY-1

A series of outdoor activities led by professional facilitators

Group dynamics

Trust-building

Problem-solving processes

Communication patterns

None

Self-assessment survey instrument: 7-point Likert Scale

Crites and Schuster, 2004 [17]

Prospective case series

Wright University

12

Not reported

Not reported

Internal Medicine/ Pediatrics

PGY-1 to PGY-4

Monthly 30-min seminars

Basic coding

Revenue management

Optimizing coding to enhance reimbursement

Physician personal finance

Insurance systems and payment mechanisms

Dynamics of group practice

Getting a good job

Accounts receivable management

Accounts payable management

Human resources

Risk management

Regulatory restrictions in practice

None

Self-assessment (Likert scale from 1 to 5); Curriculum Evaluation (Likert scale from 1 to 5)

Lee, Tse and Naguwa, 2004 [18]

Prospective case series

University of Hawaii

10

Not reported

Not reported

Pediatrics

PGY-2

3-h interactive workshop

Leadership skills

None

Self-assessment (Likert scale from 1 to 5)

Stoller, et al., 2004 [19]

Prospective case series

University of Washington

32

27.7

25% Female

Internal Medicine

PGY-1, PGY-2

Three 2-h sessions

Managing a ward team and leadership skills

Resident role as a teacher

Microskills of teaching and problems faced by residents

None

Self-assessment (Likert scale from 1 to 5)

Hemer et al., 2007 [20]

Prospective case series

Mayo Clinic

16

Not reported

Not reported

Pathology

Senior Residents

Annual course consisting of 6 sessions, each of which were 1–2 days long (average 10 h), followed by a capstone seminar

Leadership and management

Managing change and interpersonal skills

Personnel issues and quality improvement

Informatics

Finance

None

Course Evaluation: Pre- and Post-test evaluation

Stergiopoulos et al., 2009 [21]

Prospective case series

University of Toronto

52

Not reported

Not reported

Psychiatry

PGY-2 & PGY-4

Four workshops, utilizing case studies, “think-pair-share”, and “buzz groups”

Teamwork

Conflict resolution and negotiation

Quality improvement

Program planning and evaluation

Leadership skills

Mental health and addiction reform

Organizational structures

Self and career development

None

Workshop ratings (Likert scale from 0 to 5 for each topic covered assessing if the objectives were met)

Pettit et al., 2011 [22]

Retrospective case series

University of Iowa

9

Not reported

Not reported

Neuro-surgery

PGY-1 to PGY-5

Monthly 1-h workshops

Leadership styles

Conflict management

Communication styles

Motivation

1 year

20-item retrospective pre-test and post-test

Kuo et al., 2010 [23]

Retrospective case series

University of California San Francisco

24

Not reported

Not reported

Pediatrics

PGY-1 to PGY-3

3-year residency program.

Completion of a collaborative child advocacy project (protected time: one-half day a week during non-seminar outpatient and elective rotation), structured mentoring

Leadership skills

Advocacy

None

Awards and Grants obtained by graduates

Brandon and Mullan, 2013 [24]

Prospective case series

University of Michigan

44

Not reported

Not reported

Radiology

Resident and Fellow Physicians

Seven modules of 90-min sessions

Costing analysis

Quality improvement

Profiles of practice groups

Group governance

Data collection and process improvement

Healthcare economics

Negotiation and conflict management

None

Pre- and post-test assessments

Cole, et al., 2017 [25]

Prospective case series

University of Florida

10

Not reported

Not reported

Anesthesiology

Senior residents (PGY4)

2-week rotation in the Operating Room consisting of guided readings and daily debriefings

Communication

Teamwork

Situational awareness

Decision-making

None

Self-assessment and raters by others in the Operating Room

Itri, et al., 2017 [26]

Prospective Case Series

University of Virginia

21

Not reported

Not reported

Radiology

Radiology Residents

1 workshop with group discussion, role-play, and simulation

Communication

Interpersonal skills

None

Self-assessment

Hill, et al., 2018 [27]

Prospective case series

Staten Island University Hospital

7

Not reported

Not reported

Surgery

Senior Residents (PGY3–5)

Small-group discussions

Leadership skills (not further defined)

None

Pre- and post-test assessments